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    10 August 2021, Volume 35 Issue 04
    Geochemistry
    Provenances and Tectonic Significance of Detrital Zircons from the Triassic to Jurassic Sedimentary Rocks in the Diancangshan Metamorphic Massif, Western Yunnan Province
    CHEN Jing, LI Dapeng, KANG Huan, GENG Jianzhen, ZHANG Jingjing
    2021, 35(04):  883-913.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.04.01
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    The formation and evolution of the Ailaoshan ocean (AO), a branch of the Paleo-Tethyan ocean, has been precisely depicted via deciphering the magmatic records in the Sanjiang area, western Yunnan. However, regional sedimentary records that responded to the subduction and closure of the AO have still not been fully understood. Therefore, an integrated study has been carried out on 255 detrital zircon grains including U-Pb dating and analyses of trace element concentrations and Lu-Hf isotopic compositions from three sedimentary samples in the Diancangshan metamorphic terrane (DMT) in the Ailaoshan tectonic belt (ATB). Together with previously study, regional sedimentary records during the last stage evolution of the AO has been delineated. The weighted mean ages of the youngest igneous zircon groups of metamorphic sandstone DC1801, schist DC1703, and carbonate DC1702 are ~180 Ma, ~247 Ma, and ~254 Ma, respectively. Together with their field contact relationships and regional sedimentary correlation, the oldest depositional ages of these sedimentary rocks are restricted to the Early Jurassic (DC1801) and Early Triassic (DC1702 and DC1703). Provenance analyses show that different igneous rocks with ages of ~0.8 Ga, ~0.45 Ga, and ~0.25 Ga in the ATB and the late Grevillian (~0.95 Ga) and Pan-African (~0.6 Ga) igneous materials in the Indian continent before dispersion of the Indochina block from Gondwana were the main inputs for the Triassic clastic sedimentary rock (DC1703). In contrast, the Indosinian igneous rocks in the Simao block were the main inputs for the Jurassic clastic sedimentary rock (DC1801), while contributions of the ~0.45 Ga, ~0.8 Ga and ~0.95 Ga materials were largely depressed. Carbonates and coeval clastic sediments in the same depositional basin show similar detrital zircon U-Pb age distribution patterns, but signals that represent for far sourced materials notably decreased in carbonates. Evolution of the Hf isotopic compositions through time verified that the closure of the AO was at ~247 Ma. The sedimentary sequences of marine carbonate and continental clastic rocks (i.e., schist) documented the last stage evolution and closure of the AO. The Eu/Eu* values of these detrital zircon grains unravel regional crustal thickening from the closure of AO at ~247 Ma to ~235 Ma. The shift of the source areas from the Triassic to the Jurassic probably resulted from the uplift of the depositional areas due to the closure of the AO.

    Variations of Organic Carbon and Evaluation of Carbon Sequestration Potential in Surface Soil in Songnen Plain of Heilongjiang Province from 1986 to 2019
    ZHANG Li, JIN Jingze, JIANG Xia, MAO Long, CUI Yujun, LI Ying, WANG Enbao
    2021, 35(04):  914-922.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.02
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    Soil organic carbon (SOC)is a key index to evaluate soil fertility and soil C sequestration. Therefore, it is important to study variations in SOC to accurate assessment of regional soil C sequestration potential and sustainable utilization of soil resource. Based on the Second National Soil Survey and the data derived from the soil profiles measured from the farmland in 2019, we analyzed the temporal and spatial variations of soil organic carbon density (SOCD)in the surface layer (0-20 cm)in Songnen Plain of Heilongjiang Province, via the GIS spatial analysis technique, and estimated the soil organic carbon reserves using the soil type method and the potential of soil carbon sequestration using the balance method. The results show that the surface SOCD decreased by 1.06 kg/m2 on average over the past 30 years, the area with the decrease of SOCD mainly distri-buted in the middle and southeast of Songnen Plain in Heilongjiang Province. The surface SOC reserves decreased by about 143.99 Tg. Soil types with more decrease of SOC were meadow soil, chernozem and black soil, which accounted for 84.55% of the total decrease of SOC. The current Songnen Plain had a carbon sequestration potential of -2.08 Tg, including dark brown soil, albic soil and black soil is a positive potential, and the other soil types are a negative potential. It is suggested that the potential of soil carbon sequestration in Songnen Plain should be improved by increasing the application of organic fertilizer, returning straw to the field, and promoting the cultivation method of no tillage and less tillage.

    Evaluation of Soil Nutrient Quality in Selenium-rich Area: A Case Study of Naore Village, Ziyang County, Shaanxi Province
    YU Longlong, WU Lei, ZHANG Zhimin, CAO Xu, FENG Haiyan, YANG Zhongfang
    2021, 35(04):  923-930.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.04.03
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    In order to plant and further develop selenium-rich agricultural products in a scientific way, we investigated the soil nutrient quality evaluation of Naore village in Ziyang County, Shaanxi Province. In our research, a total of 138 surface soil samples were collected, and 16 indexes of plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, soil organic matter and pH were determined. The research results show that: (1)the study area is rich in selenium resources and the content of selenium in the surface soil ranges from 0.50 to 25.30 mg/kg, and the average content is 3.85 mg/kg; (2) the surface soil is neutral to weakly alkaline soil, in which macro and moderate elements are abundant or above on the whole, while trace elements such as zinc and copper and soil organic matter are deficient; (3) the comprehensive nutrient level of the surface soil reached level 3 or above, and the overall nutrient status of the soil was qualified. This study is of great significance for promoting the economic development of local selenium-rich industries.

    Effects of High Temperature and Freeze-thaw Cycle Ageing on Adsorption Performance of Hydrochar and Biochar on Pollutants
    GUAN Junjie, LIU Yuyan, LIU Siyuan, CHEN Jiawei
    2021, 35(04):  931-939.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.04.04
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    The application of hydrochar or biochar derived from agricultural wastes into soil amendments and remediation is one of hot topics nowadays. Due to long-term varied natural condition, such as changed ambient temperature, the properties of hydrochar or biochar would change and have some effect on the adsorption capacities. Hence, it is an important issue to assess the adsorption performance of hydrochar and biochar under the effect of ageing. In the study, high temperature ageing and freeze-thaw cycle ageing were used to simulate the changed ambient temperature. The physicochemical properties of fresh and aged rice husk and corn straw derived biochars and hydrochars were compared by multi-techniques of elemental analysis, Fourier infrared spectrometer (FTIR) and scanning electron microscope (SEM). The adsorption capacity and stability of hydrochar and biochar, as well as the effects of different ageing time (e.g., 30, 60, 90 cycles) on their adsorption capacity, were compared by batch experiments. The results showed that biochar had good adsorption stability for Cd (II) and atrazine, while hydrochar had poor adsorption stability for atrazine. The two ageing processes increased the oxygen containing functional groups of hydrochar and biochar, thus enhancing the adsorption capacity of Cd (II) and atrazine. In high temperature and freeze-thaw environment, biochar was more susceptible to environmental effects than hydrochar as the ageing time increased. The obtained results from this study suggest us to consider the rational use of hydrochar and biochar in the environmental remediation.

    Petrology
    Late Devonian Tectonic Transition in South Altyn Tagh: Constraints from Geochronology and Geochemistry of the Suoerkuli Monzogranite
    YUAN Yaping, LIU Xiangdong, ZHANG Zhenkai, ZENG Zhongcheng, HE Yuanfang
    2021, 35(04):  940-954.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.107
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    Whole-rock major, rare earth and trace element compositions, as well as LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages of monzogranites from Suoerkuli in the Altyn Orogen are newly presented. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating indicates that the monzogranites were formed at (377.5±1.6) Ma and (377.4±2.1) Ma. Geochemically, the rocks are characterized by relatively high Si (72.55%-76.41%) and total alkaline (K2O+Na2O=7.32%-8.59%), normal aluminum saturation index (A/CNK=0.92-1.08), and high TFeO/MgO (2.57-6.47), suggesting that the rocks are high-K calc-alkaline. These rocks have relatively high LREEs and remarkable negative Eu anomalies. Furthermore, they are enriched in elements of Rb, Th, Y, Zr, Hf and depleted in Ba, Sr, P, Ti. According to the geochemical characteristics, it is suggested that the monzogranites are classified as A1-type. The monzogranites were likely generated by the fractionation of the parental magma, which was produced by the partial melting of felsic crustal rocks led by mantle-derived material underplating. Based on the regional geological investigations and spatial-temporal distribution of the igneous rocks, we considered that the monzogranite was emplaced in an intraplate extensional environment, and generated in the transition from post-orogenic to intraplate tectonic regime in the Late Devonian.

    Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Geological Significance of Late Jurassic Intrusions at Xiuyan, Eastern Liaoning Province
    WANG Yuping, WU Wenbin, LIU Yongjun, LI Haiyang, WANG Xiaoliang, LI Chao
    2021, 35(04):  955-967.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.077
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    Petrographic and geochemical data and LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages have been obtained for the Cuocaogou biotite monzogranites, Liujiapuzi two-mica monzogranites at Xiuyan, eastern Liaoning Province. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb ages of the Cuocaogou biotite monzogranites (162.7±2.5 Ma) and Liujiapuzi two-mica monzogranites (156.9±1.1 Ma) indicate that the granitoid emplacement occurred in the Late Jurassic. Two kinds of intrusions have the same geochemical characteristics, with their major element contents featured by high Si, Al, and K, but low Fe, Mg, and Ca. The rocks have A/CNK=1.01-1.15 and A/NK=1.13-1.33. Trace elements are enriched in incompatible elements such as Rb, K, and Hf, but depleted in Nb, P, and Ti. The rocks have (La/Yb)N=7.10-41.13, and have no discernible Eu anomaly. With high Sr (128×10-6-454×10-6) and low Y (3.03×10-6-12.10×10-6) and Yb (0.40×10-6-1.32×10-6) features, the rocks show adakitic and peraluminous I-type affinity. Combined with spatial-temporal characteristics of the two plutons, magmatism at Xiuyan was likely formed in a continental crustal thickening setting, which may have been related to the Paleo-Pacific (Izanaqi plate) subduction when the Siberian and North China plate collided. This may have induced partial melting of lower crustal materials.

    Geochronology, Geochemistry, and Tectonic Significance of Mid-Cretaceous Andesites in Guangxi and Guangdong
    LIU Yang, FANG Nianqiao, QIANG Menglin, JIA Lei, SONG Chaojie
    2021, 35(04):  968-980.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.076
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    There are numerous records of Cretaceous magmatism in the coastal Southeast China. Cretaceous andesite is limited in Guangdong and Guangxi, but it may significantly reveal the Late Mesozoic tectonic setting of the northern continental margin of the South China Sea (SCS). In this paper, andesites from Yulin in Guangxi, together with Lianping and Renhua in Guangdong are selected for the study. Based on zircon U-Pb geochronology, petrography and geochemistry, systematic study on the above rock types is carried out for the first time. The results include: (1) The samples are porphyritic with phenocrysts of mainly hornblende, pyroxene and plagioclase, and the groundmass displays andesitic texture with mainly subhedral plagioclase grains; (2) Zircons of Yulin andesite yielded a weighted mean 206Pb/238U age of (93.38±0.83) Ma, which is younger than the Renhua andesites (zircon U-P age: ca.105 Ma). Therefore, there are many Mid-Cretaceous andesite records in the northern continental margin of SCS; (3) The samples are charactered with high MgO and Mg#, lower FeOT/MgO ratios, and are LREE- and LILE-enriched and HFSE-depleted. The high-Mg andesites in Guangdong and Guangxi were formed almost coevally with the adakitic rocks in Hainan Island and Shilu (Guangdong), indicating that the tectonic setting in northern continental margin of SCS differs from that of Zhejiang and Fujian, which was influenced by the Paleo-Pacific subduction. It is concluded that tectonics of the northern SCS margin may have been influenced by the Late Mesozoic Neo-Tethyan ridge subduction.

    Geochronology and Geochemistry of Early Mesozoic Rhyolite in Southwestern Guangxi and Its Geological Significance
    LIU Dongmei, KANG Zhiqiang, YANG Feng, LI Daixian
    2021, 35(04):  981-996.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.103
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    The Indosinian southwestern Guangxi was located in the intersection of multiple tectonic plates, with it’s structure and evolution still being controversial. In this paper, systematic studies were carried out on zircon geochronology, whole-rock major and trace elemental, and Sr-Nd isotopic data of the felsic volcanic rocks on both sides of the Shiwandashan basin in southwestern Guangxi. LA-ICP-MS zircon U-Pb dating of the felsic volcanic rocks yielded 240.5-248.4 Ma, suggesting that the rocks were formed in the Early Triassic. The felsic volcanic rocks are mainly rhyolitic, characterized by high SiO2, K2O and Al2O3, and low CaO and MgO, belonging to high-K calc-alkaline and strongly peraluminous series with A/CNK=1.17-1.25. The rhyolite is enriched in Rb, Th, U, Zr and Hf, but depleted in Sr, Nb, Ti and P in the primitive mantle-normalized spider diagram. The chondrite-normalized REE patterns show slightly right inclining, LREE/HREE enrichment patterns, and moderate negative Eu anomalies (δEu=0.44-0.73). The rocks have relatively high (87Sr/86Sr)i(0.706,21-0.719,51) and low εNd(t) (-10.67 to -9.72), with model age of 1.85-1.96 Ga, suggesting a Paleoproterozoic crustal-derived magma source. Based on the previous studies, the rhyolite was emplaced at late/post-collisional setting after the main Indosinian collision between the South China and Indochina blocks.

    Geothermal Resources
    Geothermal Geological Characteristics of the Xianxian High and Fucheng Sag in the Middle Cangxian Uplift, Bohai Bay Basin
    HUANG Xu, SHEN Chuanbo, DU Li, WEI Guangren, LUO Lu, TANG Guo
    2021, 35(04):  997-1008.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.043
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    To explore the karstic reservoir distribution in the North China Platform, and enhance the geothermal energy utilization in the Xianxian high and Fucheng sag geothermal field, we analyzed the distribution of karst reservoir of Xianxian high and the Fucheng sag and the four major influencing factors (i.e.source, reservoir, migration channel, and cover) geothermal fields. Based on logging, seismic, and hydro-chemical data, a conceptual model for the geothermal field is established, and the geothermal resource evaluated. It is considered that the geothermal field is a conductive one, which was formed in a continental extension basin and controlled by deep faults. It formed a medium-low temperature conductive geothermal system, which is characterized by good caprock and geothermal gradient (3.63 to 5.31 ℃/100 m), whose recharged water source comes from atmospheric precipitation in the Taihangshan and Yanshan, and concentrated in karst heat reservoir of the Xianxian high and Fucheng sag. Specifically, the burial depth of the Jixian karst thermal reservoir is 1,400 to 1,500 m (effective thickness 336.1 m) in the Xianxian high geothermal field, whilst the Ordovician karstic reservoir is 2,000 to 2,500 m (effective thickness 55.3 m) in the Fucheng sag geothermal field. The total extractable geothermal resource of Jixian karstic reservoir in the Xianxian high geothermal field is 3.75×109 GJ, (1.28×108 t standard coal eqv.), and the annual geothermal resource can meet the indoor heating demand of 45.23 million. The total extractable geothermal resource of the Ordovician karstic reservoir in the Fucheng sag geothermal field is 0.80×109 GJ, (0.27×108 t standard coal eqv.), and the annual geothermal resource can meet the indoor heating demand of 9.54 million. The geothermal field development potential is likely immense.

    Coal Geology
    Geochemical Characteristics of Rare Earth Elements and the Indicative Significance in the Ximing Coal Mine, Shanxi Province
    WANG Zhenzhen, LI Jinxiao, ZHANG Ke, GUO Wenmu, ZHANG Shaowei, XIAO Lin
    2021, 35(04):  1009-1017.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.092
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    Concentration characteristics and state of occurrence of rare earth elements (REEs) in No.2,No.3, No.8 and No.9 coals of the Ximing Mine in Shanxi were analyzed by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) and X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (XRF). According to the anomalies of Ce, Eu, Gd, La, Y and TiO2/Al2O3, we revealed the formation environment of coal and the possible REE sources. The results show that: (1) The REE contents of the Ximing coal is very similar to the global average value and the value of the United States coal, but lower than the average value of the Chinese coal. The REEs are mainly MREE-HREE-enriched, followed by LREE and LREE-MREE-enriched. (2) The coal-forming environment is mainly weakly reducing and affected by acidic marsh water environment. (3) The REEs source may have been mainly terrigenous detrital materials, and the sedimentary source rocks are determined to be felsic or intermediate-felsic magmatic rocks.

    4D Seismic Characteristics in Coal Mine Gobs: A Case Study from the Zhangji Coal Mine in Huainan Coalfield
    YUAN Hao, LIU Jiapeng, JIANG Zaixing
    2021, 35(04):  1018-1023.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.028
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    Gob subsidence is an important geological problem in coal mines, and can seriously impact coal production and represent a potentially-lethal safety risk. Therefore, detection of gob subsidence is important to ensure sustainable coal mining. Due to the complex seismic and geological conditions in the gob subsidence area, it is hard to identify accurately the gob boundary with conventional three-dimensional (3D) seismic exploration methods. Therefore, we propose a new, model-driven gob identification method based on four-dimensional (4D) seismic characteristics, and use the Zhangji coal mine in the Huainan coalfield as an example. In this method: (1) geological models before and after coal seam mining are established and forward modeling is performed; (2) the prestack time migration (PSTM) sections of the synthetic seismic data are used to back-analyze the seismic features of the gobs, which are identified according to the seismic feature variations caused by the gobs; (3) the seismic features of the gob areas (in synthetic seismic data) are used to guide the gob identification in real seismic data; (4) through seismic interpretations, the gob areal extent is constrained. Analysis of the real 4D seismic data from Zhangji coal mining area shows that the continuity of the gob reflection decreases, and the reflection is displaced at the gob boundary. Therefore, this detection method (based on the 4D seismic difference) can effectively detect the gobs and delineate their boundary.

    Oil and Gas Exploration and Development
    Fracability Evaluation of Shale Reservoir in the Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation of Well HY1, Northwestern Hunan
    JIANG Shengling, ZHOU Qinghua, JIANG Lihong, JI Anzhao, YANG Rili, ZHU Xiulan, LI Yanju
    2021, 35(04):  1024-1032.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.055
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    In order to evaluate the fracability of the Lower Cambrian Niutitang Formation (Fm.) shale reservoir in northwestern (NW) Hunan, we took the well HY1 as the research target.Through intensive core sampling, experimental analysis, integrated logging interpretation and other methods, the characteristics of organic carbon content, reservoir physical property, fracture characteristics, brittle mineral compositions, and rock mechanic properties were systematically analyzed, and the shale reservoir fracability further discussed. The results show that the Niutitang Formation in well HY1 is featured by high organic carbon content (0.25% to 13.3%, average 2.91%), and the organic-rich shale developed in the lower Niutitang Formation is 65 m thick. Fractures are less developed in organic-rich shale with the low density (0.27 to 1.21pieces/m), but shale-bedding fractures are developed. The Niutitang Fm. shale is also featured by high mineral brittleness index (17.7% to 86.4%), high static Young’s modulus (37 to 62 GPa), low static Poisson’s ratio (0.14 to 0.26), and high two-phase horizontal pressure difference coefficient (0.21 to 0.54). Overall, the Niutitang Fm. shale reservoir is favorable for fracturing with high brittleness and rock strength, yet the existence of a large number of shale bedding fractures increases the fracture complexity, and give certain negative impact on fracture generation. The double wing fracture is easy to form due to the high two-phase horizontal pressure difference. Therefore, the leakage caused by shale bedding fractures and the influence on fracture height and length extension should be considered comprehensively in fracturing design.

    Pore Structure Characteristics of Taiyuan Formation Coal Measures Shale in the Yangquan Block of the Qinshui Basin
    LI Yangyang, LI Xianqing, ZHANG Xueqing, YANG Jingwei, ZHANG Boxiang, XIAO Xianming, YU Zhenfeng
    2021, 35(04):  1033-1042.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.044
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    Pore structure of shale is one of the basic factors affecting shale gas occurrence and storage. In order to study the pore structure of highly evolved marine-continental transitional facies coal measures shale and to evaluate the storage capacity of shale gas, the scanning electron microscopy, high-pressure mercury intrusion, low-temperature N2 and CO2 gas adsorption experimental methods were mainly adopted in this paper. The microscopic characteristics of pores and pore structures of the marine-continental transitional facies shales from the Taiyuan Formation in the Yangquan Block of the Qinshui Basin were studied, and the factors affecting the pore development of the Taiyuan Formation shale were analyzed. The research results show that the porosity of the marine-continental transitional facies coal measures shale of the Taiyuan Formation in the Yangquan Block of the Qinshui Basin ranges from 2.54% to 12.03%, with an average of 6.61%. There are developed various types of pores. The inter-granular pore, intra-granular pore, and micro-crack are common. The organic pore is not developed. The total pore volume of the Taiyuan Formation coal measures shale is between 0.025,5 mL/g and 0.054,7 mL/g (average 0.040,1 mL/g), and the total specific surface area of pore is between 12.34 m2/g and 43.38 m2/g (average 28.74 m2/g). Micropore (<2 nm) and mesopore (2 nm to 50 nm) are the main carrier of shale gas storage. Organic carbon content, maturity Ro and clay mineral content all have a positive impact on the pore development of coal measures shale.

    Geochemical Characteristics and Shale Oil Potential of Shale in the Yan’an Area
    SHI Liang, ZHAO Tongtong, ZHA Hui, WANG Yanyan, HUO Pingping, FAN Bojiang
    2021, 35(04):  1043-1053.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.001
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    Industrial oil flow has been obtained in Chang 7 shale Formation in Ansai area, which turns this area into a shale oil target. Based on this, systematic quality evaluation of source rocks and shale oil potential analysis are carried out to provide reference for future shale oil exploration. The results show high organic matter abundance in the shale (average TOC=4.05%), with the main organic matter types being type I, type II1 and type II2. The Chang 7 shale has entered the oil-generating window and is in the oil-generating thermal stage. The shale has both terrestrial and lacustrine source inputs, and the depositional environment was weakly reducing or oxidizing. Among the three organic matter types (higher organic matter would lead to higher hydrocarbon generating capacity), type I has higher hydrocarbon generating capacity than type II1, and type II2 has the lowest hydrocarbon generating capacity. The shale oil content of types I, II1,and II2 organic matter are 10.30 mg/g, 8.99 mg/g, and 8.14 mg/g, respectively. In terms of availability, the available shale oil resources are concentrated in type I organic matter. Type II1 organic matter is lowly available and type II2 organic matter is poorly available. In terms of comprehensive exploration potential, the most suitable target is type I organic matter, followed by type II1 and then by type II2 organic matter.

    Cutoff of Free Gas and Porosity in Shale Gas Industrial Production Area of Longmaxi Formation in Southern Sichuan Basin
    RAO Quan, KANG Yongshang, HUANG Yi, ZHAO Qun, WANG Hongyan
    2021, 35(04):  1054-1064.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.04.30
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    As an important form of shale gas, free gas determines the development potential and economic benefit of shale gas. Taking the Longmaxi Formation shale in southern Sichuan Basin as an example, and combining with X-ray diffraction (XRD), rock organic carbon, reservoir physical property, log interpretation and production test, we compared and correlated between free gas content and test daily gas production in Sichuan Basin and its periphery. We proposed the free gas content cutoff in industrial production area, and discussed the major controlling factors of shale free gas content from the aspects of hydrocarbon source, reservoir and preservation. Porosity cutoff was also discussed accordingly. The results show that it is easier to obtain industrial gas flow when the shale free gas content is above 2.5 m3/t. Free gas content of the Longmaxi Formation shale in southern Sichuan Basin is clearly positively correlated with TOC, porosity, siliceous mineral content, formation pressure coefficient, and fracture development, but negatively correlated with water saturation and carbonate mineral content. Fracture development, water saturation, siliceous minerals and carbonate can indirectly affect free gas content by correlating porosity, which are unlikely to be its major controlling factors. Major controlling factors of free gas content are TOC, porosity and formation pressure coefficient. The Monte Carlo simulation of free gas content indicates over 50% probability for 2.5 m3/t above free gas content when the shale porosity is > 4%. It is recommended to set porosity cutoff at 4% in shale gas industrial production area selection to control geological risk. Shale gas content should be evaluated systematically from three important aspects (i.e.TOC, porosity and formation pressure coefficient) with focus on free gas evaluation.

    Characteristics and Mechanism of Source Rock Development Controlled by Sedimentary Microfacies in River-delta System: Case Study of Coal-measure Source Rock in Enping Formation in Pearl River Estuary Basin
    LI Yan, DENG Yunhua, LI Youchuan
    2021, 35(04):  1065-1077.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.106
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    Coal-measure source rocks are important sources of oil and gas. Conventional research of source rocks mainly focuses on single-well analysis, which depends heavily on the degree of exploration and available data. It lags behind exploration, and is thus difficult to predict favorable hydrocarbon-generating sags. The coal-measure source rocks of the Enping Formation in the Pearl River Estuary basin are systematically studied here, in combination with sedimentology and geochemistry. The favorable geological conditions, characteristics, and favorable facies for these coal-measure source rocks are revealed, and the sedimentary model of coal-measure source rock in river-delta system is established. Based on the analysis of sedimentary facies and geochemical indicators (organic matter abundance, hydrocarbon generation potential, hydrogen index), the characteristics and mechanism of source rock controlled by sedimentary microfacies are revealed. There are several favorable geological conditions for the development of coal-measure source rock in river-delta system of the Enping Formation: (1) steady tectonic subsidence, and largely balanced sedimentation and subsidence rates; (2) warm humid climate with flourishing vegetation; (3) widely distributed river and delta. The coal seam has thin single layer, multiple vertical layers, and poor horizontal continuity. Coal-measure source rocks in fluvial and deltaic environment are both rich in organic matter, which may have derived mainly from terrestrial higher plants. The hydrocarbon generation potential and hydrogen index of these coal-measure source rocks are similar in fluvial and deltaic environment. The coal-measure source rocks of river-delta system are highly heterogeneous, and are controlled by sedimentary facies. From channels and distributary channels to fluvial swamps and deltaic plain swamps distal from rivers and distributary channels, the organic matter abundance increases and the organic matter types improves. The fluvial swamp and deltaic plain swamp microfacies are the most favorable sedimentary facies for the formation of coal-measure source rocks in river-delta systems. Paleogeographical conditions such as paleotopography, hydrodynamic and redox conditions are important factors that formed difference source rocks in different microfacies. The sedimentary model of coal-measure source rock formation in different microfacies and the distribution characteristics of coal seams in river-delta systems is newly established.

    Source Analysis of Oil and Gas Indication in Muli Depression of South Qilian Basin:A Thermal Simulation Case Study of DK-9 Core
    TANG Shiqi, LU Zhenquan, CHENG Bin, LIAO Zewen, LIU Hui, WANG Ting, FAN Dongwen, ZHANG Fugui
    2021, 35(04):  1078-1087.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.030
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    Multiple gas hydrate boreholes in the Muli Depression (South Qilian Basin) have encountered varying coexistence of hydrates and oil-gas, indicating good potential for oil and gas exploration. It is thus necessary to perform source analysis on the discovered oil and gas indications. In this study, four groups of oil and gas samples from borehole DK-9 were studied. Due to the limited drilling depth, on the basis of oil source comparison of existing source rocks, thermal simulation was conducted on five representative lowly-mature source rocks (Middle Jurassic and Upper Triassic) to constrain the hydrocarbon generation process. The results were then compared with the oil and gas to further constrain their source. The results reveal that the oil and gas indications can be divided into two types: (Ⅰ) those with biodegradation and are slightly more mature, and (Ⅱ) those that are slightly less mature. The source rocks comprise mainly three types, corresponding to 163.30-207.42 m, 207.42-348.50 m, and 357.90-586.50 m depths, respectively. Considering also the conventional oil source comparison, the thermal simulation and the geological condition analysis, it is concluded that type I oil and gas is mainly homologous with type I source rocks. Type Ⅱ oil and gas may have had the same origin as type Ⅱ source rocks, and may also be contributed by type Ⅲ source rocks and/or deeper source rocks, i.e., its parent material is related to both the Middle Jurassic and the Upper Triassic source rocks.

    Reservoir Characteristics of Permian Lower He 8 Member in Longdong Area, Ordos Basin
    CUI Gaixia, WEI Qinlian, XIAO Ling, WANG Song, HU Rong, WANG Chonghuan
    2021, 35(04):  1088-1097.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.04.028
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    The Longdong area is a new natural gas exploration zone in the Upper Paleozoic Ordos Basin. The Permian Lower Shihezi Formation (lower He 8 gas member) is the main gas-producing layer. The local deposition, reservoir and accumulation are relatively complex, and the level of understanding in the natural gas exploration is relatively low. Combining logging data, core observation, thin-section, physical properties and other data, we investigated the petrological characteristics, physical properties, and pore structural characteristics of the lower He 8 reservoir of the Lower Shihezi Formation in the southwestern Ordos Basin, and we discuss the main controlling factors on the reservoir performance. The results show that the reservoir sandstones of the lower He 8 are dominated by quartz sandstone and lithic quartz sandstone. Arkose content is low, suggestive of a high-energy and distal-source environment. During diagenesis, sandstone reservoirs may have undergone intense compaction and pressure dissolution, and the clastic particles and lithic fragments are interlocked with each other, accompanied by different degrees of quartz regrowth, and the disappearance of large number of primary intergranular pores. The pore types include mainly micro-sized intragranular pores and rock chip-dissolved pores. The reservoir physical properties are controlled by both the sedimentary facies and diagenesis. Sedimentary facies fundamentally control the reservoir physical properties. The sand-body structure has an important impact on the reservoir physical properties. The physical properties of the cut-type single sand-body are relatively good, followed by the spliced sand-body, and then by isolated single sand-body. Compaction is the main reason for the densification of the layer physical properties. Hydromica is the primary factor for the densification of the reservoir due to cementation. The degree of reservoir dissolution is low and the improving effect on the reservoir quality is limited. Our results provide a reliable geological basis and scientific basis for the further exploration and development of the lower He 8 reservoir at Longdong.

    Geological Characterization of the Eocene Pinghu Movement in the Xihu Sag and Its Hydrocarbon Geological Significance
    QI Peng, GUO Gang, REN Yaping, CUI Min, WANG Xin
    2021, 35(04):  1098-1105.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.045
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    The Pinghu Movement is an important Cenozoic tectonic process, but its influence on the Xihu sag is still unclear. Based on three-dimensional (3D) seismic data interpretation and comprehensive geological analysis, the geological characteristics of the Pinghu Movement in the Xihu sag are systematically summarized. The study shows that the movement was a major tectonic event in the Xihu sag, controlling the extensional stress field transformation in the Eocene Xihu sag. The extensional direction was NW-SE before the movement, and changed to NWW-SEE after the movement. Because of the Pinghu Movement, the tectonic deformation and sedimentary filling of the Xihu sag changed greatly. The early NE-trending faulting gradually weakened, while NNE-trending faulting began, migrating the subsidence center from the northern part of the sag to the middle part. The magmatism was concentrated from the periphery of the sag to the interior. As a response to a major kinematic adjustment of the Eocene West Pacific tectonic system, the Pinghu Movement has affected the distribution of coal-bearing sequences of the Pinghu Formation in the sag.

    Structural Differences and Impacts on Hydrocarbon Accumulation in Hangzhou Slope of Xihu Sag
    CUI Min, XU Jianyong, GUO Gang, XIE Xiaojun, QI Peng, XIAO Xi, WANG Xin
    2021, 35(04):  1106-1113.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2020.094
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    The Hangzhou slope is a frontier for oil and gas exploration in the Xihu sag. Structural characteristics are the basis for petroleum geological study. Based on the structures of the Hangzhou slope, the evolution of main controlling faults and their controls on hydrocarbon migration, we analyze the structural differences of slopes and their effects on hydrocarbon accumulation. The results show that the Hangzhou slope is divided into three parts: the northern, middle, and southern part. The strike direction of the faults in the middle section is NNE, and individual faults are small but numerous. There are E-dipping normal faults and W-dipping reverse faults. The Yingcuixuan main fault may have been active during the sedimentation of the Pinghu Formation, and the middle part of the Hangzhou slope had the strongest fault activity with maximum drop of 800 m, during the sedimentation of the lower part of the Pinghu Formation. The fault strike change, the sandstone content, and the lithological inversion around the main fault suggest that the sandbody is not well developed in the Yingcuixuan main fault’s upthrow wall in the middle part of the Hangzhou slope, whose sealing is better than that in the northern part. During the key accumulation periods (ca. 23 Ma and 12 Ma), the middle section of the Hangzhou slope was on the favorable oil and gas migration pathway. The middle part of Yingcuixuan main fault is inactive after 15 Ma, which enriches the oil and gas in the downthrow wall.

    Low-amplitude Structures and Its Control on Hydrocarbon Enrichment and Accumulation: An Example from Yan’an Formation in Pengyang Area, Ordos Basin
    ZHENG Dengyan, WANG Zhenliang, WANG Lianguo, HUANG Hao
    2021, 35(04):  1114-1123.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.042
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    Low-amplitude structures are widely developed at Pengyang. As Pengyang is distal from the source rock, the oil had undergone long-distance vertical and lateral migration, and the relations between structures and oil accumulation is unclear. Considering the geological and tectonic characteristics and based on sizable drilling and production data, we studied the low-amplitude structures of Yan 9 oil layer at Pengyang and its controlling effect on hydrocarbon enrichment and accumulation. The results show that low-amplitude structures at Pengyang are widely developed, dominated by nose-like structures. Low-amplitude structures with >18 m structural amplitude and >2.8 km2 closed area likely caused effective oil-water heterogeneity, and provided desirable traps for hydrocarbon accumulation. Accumulation of the study area is controlled by paleogeomorphology and can be divided into two types, i.e.slope mouth and fluvial ancient highland slope accumulation. The low-amplitude structures located in the dominant paleogeomorphology accumulation area could facilitate large-scale accumulation, and comprise 10 structural units. As they are in different locations and restricted by different accumulation factors, their hydrocarbon accumulation controlling factors are different. The (1) to (5) structural units in the north are located near the hydrocarbon generation center in the Jurassic paleogeomorphology-dominant accumulation area, with the oil enrichment mainly controlled by the structures. The degree of oil enrichment increases with increasing structural amplitude and closed area. The (6) to (10) structural units in the southwest are not in the Jurassic paleogeomorphology-dominant accumulation area, and low-amplitude structures are necessary for hydrocarbon accumulation (rather than being a main controlling factor). There is no clear correlation between the scale of low-amplitude structures and the degree of oil enrichment.

    Mechanism of Differential Oil-gas Distribution in the Steep-slope Zone (Northwestern Margin of Bozhong Sag): Evidence from Reconstruction of Hydrocarbon Accumulation
    HAO Peng, YANG Jilei, ZHANG Xudong, ZANG Chunyan, CHEN Rongtao, WANG Bo, SHUI Leilei, WANG Sihui, CAI Tao
    2021, 35(04):  1124-1135.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.029
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    Hydrocarbon distribution is low in the western part but high in the eastern part of the steep-slope zone in the northwestern margin of Bozhong sag (Bohai Bay Basin), and the reservoir-forming conditions are complex. Based on fluid inclusions petrographic observation, quantitative grain fluorescence technology, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), and crude oil geochemical properties, and combined with the thermal, and burial history and tectonic evolution, the hydrocarbon accumulation process was unraveled from the paleo- and modern fluid characteristics. Besides, the reason of differential oil-gas distribution was also discussed. Our results define two hydrocarbon charging stages in the study area: stage one started at the early deposition of the Minghuazhen Formation (7 Ma), when the lowly-mature oil was sourced from the Shahejie Formation in the southeast. It has experienced short-range migration and formed reservoirs in the Paleogene sequences in the eastern part of the area. The charging scale is low at this stage. Stage two occurred in the middle deposition stage of the Minghuazhen Formation (5.3 Ma). The highly-mature hydrocarbons may have ascended from east to west, and formed large-scale paleo-oil reservoirs in the Paleogene sequences. During the late deposition stage of the Minghuazhen Formation (3.7 Ma), the activity of boundary faults was strengthened, and the activity rate in the western part of the area was higher than that in the eastern part. The faults may have changed from being hydrocarbon seal to fluid conduits. The Paleogene paleo-oil reservoirs in the western part of the area were largely destroyed, and the oil-water interface of the paleo-oil reservoir in the Dongying Formation (3rd member) moved upward, with the hydrocarbon ascending to shallow formation. During the Quaternary sedimentation (2.2 Ma), the fault activity weakened and the current reservoirs were gradually formed. The hydrocarbon distribution pattern in the steep-slope zone of the northwestern margin of Bozhong sag are likely controlled by the distance from the source rock, the different reservoir formation stages, and the deformation intensity difference of the boundary faults.

    Experimental Study on Horizontal CSS Performance Improvement Mechanism by Wellbore Electric Heating
    WU Yongbin, LÜ Bolin, DU Xuan, LU Yingbo, JIANG Youwei, XING Xiangrong
    2021, 35(04):  1136-1146.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.004
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    To resolve the issues of high porous medium flow resistance, low oil production rate, high oil decline rate, and low oil recovery factor for horizontal cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) wells in heavy oil reservoirs, the horizontal CSS method assisted by electric heating was proposed in this study. Combining the heat from electric heating and steam during H-CSS, the analytical model of formation temperature rise was established for the three phases of electric-assisted CSS (i.e. injection, soaking, production), and physical experiments were carried out to compare the performance of conventional CSS and E-CSS. The experimental results were used to validate the analytical model and reveal the key electric heating mechanism on the horizontal CSS performance. Meanwhile, the typical well model was used to forecast the E-CSS potential. The results indicate that the electric heating can achieve uniform heating in the steam injection phase, maintain heating around the wellbore in the soak phase, and reduce flow resistance and enhance oil output in the production phase. Forecast by the typical well model indicates that electric heating can enhance oil recovery factor by 9.4% and OSR from 0.14 to 0.23, implying significant application potential in heavy oil reservoirs developed by horizontal CSS.

    Automatic Extraction of Outcrop Cavity Based on Multi-scale Regional Convolution Neural Network
    WANG Qing, ZENG Qihong, ZHANG Youyan, SHAO Yanlin, WEI Wei, DENG Fan
    2021, 35(04):  1147-1154.  DOI: 10.19657/j.geoscience.1000-8527.2021.003
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    Determination of the pore space characteristics is important for carbonate reservoir interpretation and evaluation. Field outcrop can reflect the geology of the underground reservoir, and thus can be used to identify the cavity automatically and characterize their parameters. In this study, through enhancing the deep-learning model Mask-RCNN, a new cavity detection method based on a multi-scale regional convolution neural network is proposed, with its accuracy being verified by two methods: (1) By comparing the cavity extraction results of this method with those of OSTU, watershed, BP neural network, support vector machine, and Mask-RCNN, it is shown that the method has higher detection accuracy; (2) By calculating the three cavity characteristic parameters of cavity number, surface porosity, and the average cavity area through the cavity results extracted by the method, and by comparing the results of manual extraction, it is shown that the accuracy for the cavity number, surface porosity, and average cavity area is over 88%, 93%, and 93%, respectively. Consequently, the proposed method is applied to the automatic cavity identification in the digital outcrop profile of Dengying Formation (2nd Member) in Xianfeng, Ebian. We calculated the cavity parameters in the layers, and quantitatively analyze their distribution characteristics, in order to provide a carbonate reservoir evaluation basis for this outcrop.